1. Occurrence and Monitoring
Radioactivity in water and wastewater originates from both natural sources and human activities (e.g., nuclear fuel-related operations, from mining to reprocessing; medical and industrial uses of radioisotopes; worldwide fallout from atmospheric testing of nuclear devices; and enhanced concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides). Water and wastewater monitoring programs should be designed to realistically assess the degree of radioactive contamination. In some situations (e.g., compliance monitoring for drinking water), the conditions are clearly defined.1–3 In others, program staff may need radiation-protection professionals to determine the critical radionuclides, the critical pathway by which such radionuclides moves through the environment, and the critical population groups exposed as a result. This approach helps narrow the list of possible radionuclides to monitor.